COMPARING POSTSECONDARY MARKETING STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON COMPUTER-BASED AND HANDWRITTEN ESSAY TESTS

The purpose of this study was to determine if there were differences in postsecondary marketing student performance on essay tests based on test format (i.e., computer-based or handwritten). Specifically, the variables of performance, test completion time, and gender were explored for differences based on essay test format. Results of the study indicate that there was no significant difference in postsecondary marketing student scores based on test format. There was, however, a significant difference in test completion time based on essay format. Postsecondary marketing students completed the computer-based essay test significantly faster than they did the handwritten essay test. Implications for postsecondary marketing educator are also discussed.


INTRODUCTION
The use of computer-based tests for assessing students has a long, established history.The use of these tests is likely influenced by many reported advantages.Goldberg and Pedulla (2002) supported this idea when they stated that "Moves toward computerized testing stem from the advantages it offers over the traditional paper-and-pencil format" (p.1053).Some of the reported advantages of computer-based tests include immediate student feedback (Alderson, 2000;Barkley, 2002;Stevens, 2001), increased instructional time (Barkley, 2002;Truell & Davis, 2003), increased scoring accuracy (Stevens, 2001), increased test administration options (Alderson, 2000), more assessment opportunities (Barkley, 2002), records administration (Alderson, 2000;Stevens, 2001), and reduced testing costs (Barkley, 2002).All indicators point to not only the continued, but also the increased use of computer-based tests for student assessments (Barkley, 2002;Bugbee, 1996;Liefert, 2000;Shermis, Mzumara, & Bublitz, 2001).
Despite the many advantages of using computer-based tests, there is a concern in the literature regarding student performance equivalence when compared with traditional paper and pencil tests.As noted by Davis and Gardner (2004) "A number of reviews regarding the statistical equivalence between paper-and-pencil based tests versus computer-based tests have been documented, with mixed results" (p.2).To further compound these mixed results, "Most of the literature regarding computer-based testing has focused on student performance on computer-based tests with objective type questions" (Truell & Davis, 2003, p. 29). Lee (2002) supported this contention by stating ". . .there has been a growing interest in the equivalence of computerized and paper-andpencil multiple choice tests; however, little attention has been paid to open-ended tests such as writing assessments" (p.136).
The results of the few studies comparing computer-based and handwritten essay performance have been mixed.For example, Bridgeman and Cooper (1998) investigated the comparability of computer-based and handwritten essay scores on the Graduate Management Admissions Test.Results of their analysis found that scores on the handwritten essays were higher than the scores on the computer-based essays.In addition, they indicated that this score difference did not interact with the English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL), ethnic, or gender variables.Manalo and Wolfe (2000) noted that the Test of English as a Foreign Language has been revised to include a writing component.They explained that individuals were given a choice of completing this written component in either a computer-based or handwritten format.They postulated that because of the variability of access to and comfort levels with computers that the results may not be comparable across formats.Their analysis found that handwritten essay scores were about 1/3 standard deviation higher than computer-based essay scores.Lee (2002) conducted a study to determine if differences existed in the computer-based and handwritten essay scores of ESL students.Although Lee (2002) noted that the computer-based essay responses contained more words and sentences than did the handwritten essay responses, the scores earned were not significantly higher based on format.MacCann, Eastment, and Pickering (2002) compared the essay scores of high school students between computer-based or handwritten test formats.The results of their study were inconclusive as the differences in scores were not consistent across the various essay tests administered.Lastly, Russell and Haney (1997) reported that student scores on the computer-based essays were significantly higher than were they were on the handwritten essays.

NEED FOR THE STUDY
While there has been considerable research on the topic of computer-based testing in general, few studies have compared student performance on the various essay test formats (i.e., computer-based or handwritten).Thus, the result of this study adds to the limited literature base regarding student performance on essays based on test format.In addition, this study builds upon the recommendation of Truell and Davis (2003) who suggested "A study of this type would provide additional information regarding student performance on computer-based essay questions" (p.29).This additional insight is critical given the mixed results of the few studies that have examined student scores based on essay test format.

PURPOSE
The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to determine if there were differences in postsecondary marketing student performance and time to essay test completion based on test format and (b) to determine if there were differences in postsecondary postsecondary marketing student performance and time to essay test completion based on test format and gender.Specifically, the following research questions were explored.
1. Is there a significant difference in postsecondary marketing student performance between computer-based or handwritten essay tests?
2. Is there a significant difference in postsecondary marketing student completion time between computer-based or handwritten essay tests?
3. Is there a significant difference by gender in postsecondary marketing student performance between computer-based or handwritten essay tests?
4. Is there a significant difference by gender in postsecondary marketing student completion time between computer-based or handwritten essay tests?

METHODOLOGY
The research design, participants, data collection procedures, and data analysis are described in this section.

Research Design
A 2 X 2 Latin square quasi-experimental design was used for this study.Specifically, two intact postsecondary principles of marketing classes were the row factor, the two essay test formats were the column factor, and the method (i.e., computer-based or handwritten formats) was the treatment.This study design was used because "experimental control is achieved or precision enhanced by entering all respondents (or settings) into all treatments" (Campbell & Stanley, 1963, p. 50).As such, this design controls for most threats to internal validity.The Latin square design for this study is illustrated in Table 1.

Participants
Students enrolled in two intact postsecondary principles of marketing classes (32 students in each class) served as the study participants.Of the 64 postsecondary marketing students participating in the study, 33 were female and 31 were male (52 and 48 percent, respectively).

Data Collection Procedures
Students in both intact postsecondary marketing classes completed the same assignments, were taught by the same instructor, and were taught in the same classroom.The handwritten essay test formats were completed in the same classroom in which instruction took place.The computer-based essay tests were completed in a proctored computer-based testing lab located on campus.Participating postsecondary marketing students were notified in advance as to how the essay tests were going to be administered.Postsecondary marketing student test completion times for the computer-based essay tests were automatically recorded by the computer testing system.Student test completion times for handwritten essays were recorded by the proctor.For the handwritten essay tests participants were asked to keep all materials facedown until given the signal to begin by the proctor who noted the start time.Participating postsecondary marketing students were asked to submit their tests to the proctor immediately upon completion so the proctor could note accurately their respective ending times.To avoid potential essay test scoring bias based on essay test format, an analytical scoring procedure was used (Wang, 2000).

Data Analysis
To answer the research questions, MANOVA analyses were conducted.Post hoc ANOVAs were computed following each significant MANOVA analysis.All tests of significance were conducted at α = .05.Power and effect size is reported for these analyses where appropriate.Omega squares (ω 2 ) are used to interpret effect size magnitude (Kirk, 1996).

FINDINGS
The following section presents the finding for each of the four research questions.

Research Question One
Research question one sought to determine if there was a significant difference in postsecondary marketing student scores on an essay test based on format.The MANOVA analysis indicated that there was a significant difference in either score or time to test completion.A post hoc ANOVA analysis for differences on test scores F(1, 127) = 0.676, p = 0.413 indicated that there was not a significant difference in postsecondary marketing student test scores based on format.4. The effect size for this analysis as interpreted by the ω 2 is 0.118, which is a medium effect size (Kirk, 1996).

Research Question Three
Research question three sought to determine if there was a significant difference between genders in postsecondary marketing student scores on an essay test based on format.The MANOVA analysis indicated that there was a significant difference in either test score or time to test completion based on gender.A post hoc ANOVA on test format score and gender difference, F(1, 127) = 0.670, p = 0.451 indicated that there was no significant difference in test score based on postsecondary marketing student gender and format.Table 3 presents the MANOVA and ANOVA analyses for research question three.Descriptive statistics for this analysis appear in Table 4. Since the Latin square design does not allow for interaction analysis, it was not determined whether females were significantly faster than males when completing the computer-based, handwritten, or both test formats.Table 3 presents the MANOVA and ANOVA analyses for research question four.Descriptive statistics for this analysis appear in Table 4.The effect size for this analysis as interpreted by the ω 2 is 0.007.A ω 2 of 0.007 is a small effect size (Kirk, 1996).

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
Based on the findings of this study a number of conclusions can be drawn.These conclusions, however, are put forward with caution and generalizing beyond the participants is not possible.First, there is no difference in postsecondary marketing student scores based on format.Second, there is a difference in the essay test completion time based on test format.Postsecondary marketing students complete the computerbased format faster than postsecondary marketing students with the handwritten essay test format.Third, there is no difference in test scores based on test format and gender.Fourth, females completed the testing process faster than did the males.This difference, however, is too small to be of much practical importance.These conclusions translate into an important implication for practice.Chiefly, postsecondary marketing instructors are encouraged to adopt computer-based essay tests in their classes.No difference in postsecondary marketing student scores and faster essay test completion times offers advantages to both postsecondary marketing instructors and students.Both instructors and students benefit from the scheduling flexibility computer-based tests postsecondary marketing offer.In addition, both postsecondary marketing instructors and students benefit from faster essay test completion speeds.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
Based on the findings of this study and a review of the relevant literature, the following recommendations for further research are offered: 1.This study should be replicated in other settings.Given that relatively few studies have examined student performance on computer-based and handwritten essay test formats, such a study would aid in growing the literature base regarding these student assessment options.This recommendation is especially important given the mixed results in the literature.
2. A study should be conducted to determine if postsecondary marketing students have a preference for completing essay tests using the computer-based or handwritten format.Such a study would provide additional insight into the use computer-based essay tests with postsecondary marketing students.
3. A study should be conducted to determine if students have a preference for other types of test question formats (i.e., matching, multiple choice, true/false, etc.).Such a study would provide additional insight in student testing preferences based on question format.

Table 1
Illustration of the 2 x 2 Latin Square Design Table 2 presents the MANOVA and ANOVA analyses for research question one.Descriptive statistics for this analysis appear in Table 4.Research question two sought to determine if there was a significant difference in postsecondary marketing student completion time based on format.The MANOVA analysis indicated that there was a significant difference in either score or test completion time.A post hoc ANOVA analysis for differences on test scores F(1, 127) = 11.522,p=0.001 indicated that there was a significant difference in student test completion time based on essay test format.Postsecondary marketing students completed the computerbased essay test format significantly faster than they did the handwritten essay test format.Table2presents the MANOVA and ANOVA analyses for research question two.Descriptive statistics for this analysis appear in Table

Table 3
Analysis of Latin Square Design with Gender AddedResearch question four sought to determine if there was a significant difference by gender in postsecondary marketing student scores on an essay test based on format.The MANOVA analysis indicated that there was a significant difference in either test score or test completion time based on gender.A post hoc ANOVA analysis on test format score and gender difference, F(1, 127) = 11.370,p = 0.001 indicated that there was a significant difference in test scores based on postsecondary marketing student gender and format.

Table 4
Descriptive Statistics for the Data in the Analysis Maximum possible tests score was 30 on all test versions; maximum possible time to complete each test version was 75 minutes.